The Effectiveness of Compassion-Focused Therapy on Mental Toughness and Mental Health in Mothers of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Maryam Goudarzi; Marjan Albehbahani; Jalal Kalantari

Authors

Maryam Goudarzi Department of Psychology, Shi.C., Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran. Author https://orcid.org/0009-0001-5888-7295
Marjan Albehbahani Department of Psychology, Shi.C., Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran. Corresponding Author https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7926-5428
Jalal Kalantari Department of Psychology, Shi.C., Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran. Author https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2871-7532

Keywords:

Autism spectrum disorder, Compassion-focused therapy, Mental toughness, Mental health, Psychological intervention

Abstract

Objective: This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of compassion-focused therapy in improving mental toughness and mental health among mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder.

Methods and Materials: This quasi-experimental study used a pretest–posttest control-group design. The statistical population consisted of mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder receiving services from specialized autism centers in Shiraz, Iran. Forty eligible mothers were selected through convenience sampling and randomly assigned to an intervention group and a control group, with 20 participants in each group. The intervention group participated in eight weekly 90-minute group sessions of compassion-focused therapy based on Gilbert’s model, whereas the control group received no structured psychological intervention during the study period. Data were collected using the 48-item Mental Toughness Questionnaire and the 28-item General Health Questionnaire. Mental-health scores were reverse-coded so that higher scores indicated better mental health. The data were analyzed using multivariate analysis of covariance and follow-up univariate analyses of covariance after controlling for pretest scores.

Findings: The multivariate effect of group on the combined dependent variables was statistically significant, Pillai’s Trace = .558, F(2, 35) = 22.13, p < .001, ηp² = .558. Follow-up analyses showed that compassion-focused therapy significantly increased mental toughness, F(1, 37) = 65.48, p < .001, ηp² = .639, and significantly improved mental health, F(1, 37) = 74.16, p < .001, ηp² = .667. The adjusted posttest means for mental toughness and mental health were significantly higher in the intervention group than in the control group.

Conclusion: Compassion-focused therapy was effective in strengthening mental toughness and improving mental health among mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder. By reducing self-criticism, regulating threat-related emotional responses, and cultivating compassionate self-support, this intervention may enhance mothers’ psychological capacity to manage persistent caregiving demands.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Bohadana, G., Morrissey, S., & Paynter, J. (2019). Self-Compassion: A Novel Predictor of Stress and Quality of Life in Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(10), 4039-4052. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-04121-x

Ebrahimi, H., & Nowrozidoost, G. (2026). Investigating the Mediating Role of Self-Compassion and Cognitive Emotion Regulation in the Relationship between Experiential Avoidance and Tendency toward Extramarital Relationships among Married Women. Mental Health and Lifestyle Journal, 4(2), 1-13.

Gilbert, P. (2014). The Origins and Nature of Compassion Focused Therapy. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53(1), 6-41. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12043

Gilbert, P. (2020). Compassion: From Its Evolution to a Psychotherapy. Frontiers in psychology, 11, 586161. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.586161

Goldipoor, M., Zamani, B., & Omidi, A. (2026). Investigating the Effect of Body Awareness Training on Self-Compassion, Body Awareness, and Somatic Symptoms in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis. Mental Health and Lifestyle Journal, 4(3), 1-12.

Gucciardi, D. F. (2017). Mental Toughness: Progress and Prospects. Current opinion in psychology, 16, 17-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.03.010

Kulasinghe, K., Whittingham, K., Mitchell, A. E., & Boyd, R. N. (2023). Psychological Interventions Targeting Mental Health and the Mother-Child Relationship in Autism: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 65(3), 329-345. https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.15432

Liang, K. L. L. K. K. H. L. L. X. W. Z. L. H., & Chi, P. (2025). Self-compassion, mental health, and parenting: Comparing parents of autistic and non-autistic children. Autism, 29(1), 53-63.

Lin, Y., Mutz, J., Clough, P. J., & Papageorgiou, K. A. (2017). Mental Toughness and Individual Differences in Learning, Educational and Work Performance, Psychological Well-Being, and Personality: A Systematic Review. Frontiers in psychology, 8, 1345. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01345

Martin, M., Moor, A. S., & Pellicano, E. (2025). Mental health of mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder: A review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(6), 1994-2006. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8311509/

Millard, L. A., Wan, M. W., Smith, D. M., & Wittkowski, A. (2023). The Effectiveness of Compassion Focused Therapy with Clinical Populations: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of affective disorders, 326, 168-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2023.01.010

Moghtaderi, L., Akbari, B., & Haghgoo, M. (2025). The Effect of Group Supportive and Educational Psychotherapy on Anxiety, Depression, Stress, and Quality of Life in Mothers of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Urmia Medical Journal, 20(2), 167-177.

Mustabeen, M., & Arshad, N. (2025). Self-Compassion, Psychological Inflexibility, Resilience and Psychological Wellbeing: A Correlational Study With Mental Health Trainees. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7768779/v1

Neff, K. D. (2023). Self-Compassion: Theory, Method, Research, and Intervention. Annual review of psychology, 74, 193-218. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-032420-031047

Nguyen, A., Grummitt, L., Barrett, E. L., Bailey, S., Gardner, L. A., Champion, K. E., Halladay, J., Maratos, F., Hunter, E., Rowlinson, K., Chapman, C., Newton, N. C., & Birrell, L. (2025). The relationship between emotion regulation and mental health in adolescents: Self-compassion as a moderator. Mental Health & Prevention, 38, 200430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhp.2025.200430

Oppenheim, D., Mottes‐Peleg, M., Dolev, S., & Yirmiya, N. (2025). Play Interactions of Autistic Preschoolers With Their Mothers and Fathers Without Toys Yield More Positive Interactions Than Play With Toys. Autism. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613251329975

Salehian, M. H. (2022). The Predictive Role of Psychological Toughness and Adaptability in the Actual Well-Being of Mothers of Children with Disabilities. African health sciences, 22(1), 611-618. https://doi.org/10.4314/ahs.v22i1.71

Selvakumar, N., & Panicker, A. S. (2020). Stress and Coping Styles in Mothers of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 42(3), 225-232. https://doi.org/10.4103/IJPSYM.IJPSYM_333_19

Sharifian, P., Kuchaki, Z., & Shoghi, M. (2024). Effect of Resilience Training on Stress, Hope, and Psychological Toughness among Mothers Living with Children with Mental and Physical Disabilities. BMC pediatrics, 24, 354. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-024-04828-6

Vasilopoulou, E., & Nisbet, J. (2016). The Quality of Life of Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 23, 36-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2015.11.008

Wakelin, K. E., Perman, G., & Simonds, L. M. (2022). Effectiveness of Self-Compassion-Related Interventions for Reducing Self-Criticism: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 29(1), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2586

Walton, C. C. (2025). A Preliminary Investigation Into Self-Compassion and Compassion-Based Intervention for Mental Health in the Performing Arts. Frontiers in psychology, 16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1512114

Xiang, Y., Zhan, X., Li, X., Wang, Y., & Kuang, Z. (2025). A Study of the Effects of Dance/Movement Therapy on Parenting Stress and Emotions in Mothers of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1465677

Yan, Y., & Abdullah, E. B. (2025). Clinical Interventions for Depression and Anxiety in Mothers of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder in China. Ls, 1(3), 1-27. https://doi.org/10.71204/srdzv858

Zeng, W., Heyman, M., Jerome, S. J., Davis, M. L., & Akobirshoev, I. (2025). Longitudinal Trajectories of Maternal Stress for Mothers with Intellectual Disabilities and Borderline Intellectual Functioning: Evidence from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-025-06732-z