Parenting Styles as Predictors of Cognitive Emotion Regulation Among High School Students

Introduction

Parenting styles significantly influence children’s emotional and psychological development. According to Boediman and Desnawati (2019), there is a direct relationship between parenting style and children's emotional development (Boediman & Desnawati, 2019). In particular, authoritative parenting, characterized by high warmth and structure, has been linked to better emotional regulation in children (Haslam et al., 2020). Conversely, authoritarian and permissive parenting styles, which either lack warmth or structure, can lead to poorer emotional outcomes (Khanum, 2023).

Research highlights the importance of the family environment in shaping emotional regulation. For instance, Agbaria, Mahamid, and Veronese (2021) found that attachment patterns and parenting styles were significantly associated with emotion regulation among Palestinian preschoolers (Agbaria et al., 2021). Similarly, Hao, Chen, and Gu (2022) demonstrated that parenting styles influenced undergraduate students' emotion regulation, with academic-social student-faculty interaction playing a mediating role (Hao et al., 2022).

The impact of parenting on emotional regulation extends across different cultural contexts. In a study by Haslam et al. (2020), cultural values moderated the relationship between parenting style, child emotion regulation, and behavioral problems in Australia and Indonesia. This suggests that the effects of parenting styles on emotional regulation may vary depending on cultural backgrounds (Haslam et al., 2020).

Cognitive emotion regulation strategies are vital for managing emotional responses. These strategies include adaptive techniques such as positive reappraisal and problem-solving, as well as maladaptive methods like rumination and catastrophizing (Besharat, 2014). Behjame, Zandi, and Khabiri (2021) emphasized the role of these strategies in predicting aggression and competitive anger among athletic students, highlighting the broad implications of effective emotion regulation (Behjame et al., 2021).

The relationship between parenting styles and cognitive emotion regulation has also been explored in the context of specific psychological conditions. Etemadi et al. (2020) investigated the predictive role of parenting styles and emotion regulation strategies on borderline personality traits in adolescents, finding significant associations (Etemadi et al., 2020). Similarly, Loechner et al. (2019) examined how emotion regulation, cognitive style, and parenting contributed to depression risk in the offspring of parents with depression (Loechner et al., 2019).

Warmth and rejection represent the emotional climate provided by parents. Warmth involves affection and supportive interactions, which are crucial for healthy emotional development (Martins et al., 2015). In contrast, rejection can lead to emotional insecurity and maladaptive regulation strategies (Kheradmand & Ghahhari, 2018). Structure and chaos pertain to the predictability and organization within the family environment. A structured environment fosters stability and effective regulation, while chaotic settings may disrupt emotional processes (Cueli, 2024).

Autonomy support and coercion refer to the degree of freedom and pressure exerted by parents. Autonomy support encourages independent problem-solving and adaptive emotion regulation, whereas coercion involves controlling behaviors that can hinder emotional development (Lagacá-Ságuin & Gionet, 2009). These dimensions collectively shape how adolescents manage their emotions and respond to stressors.

Previous studies have demonstrated the mediating role of cognitive emotion regulation in the relationship between parenting styles and various psychological outcomes. For instance, Razavi (2024) modeled anxiety sensitivity based on early maladaptive schemas and cognitive emotion regulation strategies, with parenting styles serving as key predictors (Razavi, 2024). Similarly, Tang, Lyu, and Xu (2022) explored how strength-based parenting influenced depression in Chinese high school students, mediated by cognitive reappraisal and expression suppression (Tang et al., 2022).

Moreover, parenting styles and their impact on emotion regulation have been studied in different populations and contexts. Pellerone et al. (2017) examined the influence of parenting on maladaptive cognitive schema in a group of adults, highlighting the long-term effects of early parenting practices (Pellerone et al., 2017). In another study, Muna et al. (2022) investigated the relationship between parenting style and emotional regulation in children with intellectual disabilities, underscoring the diverse applications of this research (Muna et al., 2022).

In the Iranian context, limited research has focused on the interplay between parenting styles and cognitive emotion regulation among adolescents. This study seeks to fill this gap by examining how different dimensions of parenting—warmth, rejection, structure, chaos, autonomy support, and coercion—affect cognitive emotion regulation strategies among high school students in Tabriz. The current study aims to extend this body of knowledge by exploring the specific effects of parenting styles on cognitive emotion regulation among Iranian adolescents. Given the unique cultural and social context of Iran, this research provides valuable insights into how parenting practices influence emotional development in this population. By examining the correlations between parenting dimensions and cognitive emotion regulation strategies, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying emotional well-being in adolescents.

Methods and Materials

Study Design and Participants

This study employed a cross-sectional design to examine the relationship between parenting styles and cognitive emotion regulation among high school students. The population comprised all male and female students in the second level of secondary education in Tabriz city. Using the Cochran formula, a sample size of 416 participants was determined. A multistage cluster random sampling method was utilized to select the participants. Initially, several schools were randomly chosen from different regions of Tabriz, and then classes within these schools were randomly selected to ensure a representative sample.

Measures

Cognitive Emotion Regulation

The Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ) is a standard tool designed by Garnefski, Kraaij, and Spinhoven in 2001 to measure cognitive emotion regulation strategies. The CERQ consists of 36 items, divided into nine subscales, each with four items: Self-blame, Acceptance, Rumination, Positive Refocusing, Refocus on Planning, Positive Reappraisal, Putting into Perspective, Catastrophizing, and Other-blame. Respondents rate each item on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always). The CERQ has demonstrated good validity and reliability in numerous studies, making it a robust measure for assessing cognitive emotion regulation (Besharat, 2014; Karim et al., 2014; Razavi, 2024; Sara Aman Alah Khani, 2024).

Parenting Styles

To evaluate parenting styles, the Family as a Social Context (FSC) Questionnaire, developed by Skinner, Johnson, and Snyder in 2005, is used. This questionnaire contains 48 items and six subscales, representing the six main dimensions of parenting: Warmth, Rejection, Structure, Chaos, Autonomy Support, and Coercion. The FSC is a multidimensional tool with two forms: one completed by parents, reflecting their self-assessment of parenting practices, and the other by children, indicating their perspective on the parenting styles used by their parents. In this study, the form completed by children is utilized. The FSC has demonstrated confirmed validity and reliability in various studies, ensuring its robustness in assessing different dimensions of parenting styles (Razavi, 2024).

Data Analysis

Data analysis was conducted using SPSS-27 software. Pearson correlation was employed to examine the relationships between the dependent variable (cognitive emotion regulation) and each of the independent variables (the six subscales of parenting styles: Warmth, Rejection, Structure, Chaos, Autonomy Support, and Coercion). Additionally, linear regression analysis was performed to explore the predictive power of the independent variables on cognitive emotion regulation, considering one dependent variable and two independent variables simultaneously. The validity and reliability of both the CERQ and FSC questionnaires have been confirmed in previous studies, ensuring the robustness of the measurements used in this research.

Findings and Results

The study sample consisted of 416 high school students from Tabriz, including 212 (50.96%) females and 204 (49.04%) males. The participants' ages ranged from 15 to 18 years, with a mean age of 16.5 years (SD = 1.02). In terms of grade level, 140 students (33.65%) were in the 10th grade, 138 (33.17%) in the 11th grade, and 138 (33.17%) in the 12th grade. The majority of participants, 372 (89.42%), reported living in two-parent households, while 44 (10.58%) reported living in single-parent households. Socioeconomic status was also recorded, with 98 students (23.56%) from low-income families, 219 (52.64%) from middle-income families, and 99 (23.80%) from high-income families.

Scores are on the standardized scale.

The descriptive statistics (Table 1) provide the mean and standard deviation for cognitive emotion regulation and the six subscales of parenting styles. The mean score for cognitive emotion regulation is 3.42 (SD = 0.65). Among the parenting styles, Warmth has the highest mean score of 4.10 (SD = 0.55), indicating a higher perceived level of warmth in parenting. Rejection has the lowest mean score of 2.85 (SD = 0.70), suggesting it is less prevalent among the participants.

Prior to conducting the main analyses, several assumptions were checked to ensure the validity of the statistical tests used. The assumption of normality was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test, with results indicating that the data for cognitive emotion regulation (W = 0.981, p = 0.117) and the six parenting style subscales (Warmth: W = 0.986, p = 0.223; Rejection: W = 0.984, p = 0.198; Structure: W = 0.988, p = 0.251; Chaos: W = 0.983, p = 0.187; Autonomy Support: W = 0.985, p = 0.210; Coercion: W = 0.987, p = 0.236) were normally distributed. Homoscedasticity was confirmed through visual inspection of scatterplots of standardized residuals versus predicted values, showing no evident patterns. Multicollinearity was checked using Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values, which were all below 2.0, indicating no multicollinearity concerns. These results confirm that the data met the necessary assumptions for Pearson correlation and linear regression analyses.

The correlation matrix presents the Pearson correlation coefficients and p-values between cognitive emotion regulation and each subscale of parenting styles. Warmth (r = 0.45, p < 0.001), Structure (r = 0.38, p < 0.001), and Autonomy Support (r = 0.41, p < 0.001) show significant positive correlations with cognitive emotion regulation. In contrast, Rejection (r = -0.32, p < 0.001), Chaos (r = -0.29, p < 0.001), and Coercion (r = -0.27, p < 0.001) are significantly negatively correlated with cognitive emotion regulation.

The summary of regression results indicates that the regression model is statistically significant, with an F value of 42.18 (p < 0.001). The model explains 46% of the variance in cognitive emotion regulation (R² = 0.46), and the adjusted R² is 0.45, suggesting that the model fits the data well. The regression sum of squares is 102.5, while the residual sum of squares is 120.2, indicating a substantial amount of variance explained by the predictors.

The multivariate regression results (Table 4) show the regression coefficients (B), standard errors (SE), standardized coefficients (β), t-values, and p-values for the predictors. Warmth (B = 0.35, β = 0.33, p < 0.001), Structure (B = 0.30, β = 0.29, p < 0.001), and Autonomy Support (B = 0.31, β = 0.30, p < 0.001) have significant positive effects on cognitive emotion regulation. Rejection (B = -0.24, β = -0.23, p = 0.003), Chaos (B = -0.22, β = -0.21, p = 0.002), and Coercion (B = -0.19, β = -0.18, p = 0.007) have significant negative effects on cognitive emotion regulation. The constant term is also significant (B = 1.55, p < 0.001).

Discussion and Conclusion

This study examined the relationship between different dimensions of parenting styles and cognitive emotion regulation among high school students in Tabriz. The results reveal significant correlations between cognitive emotion regulation and all six subscales of parenting styles. Specifically, positive dimensions of parenting, such as warmth, structure, and autonomy support, were positively correlated with cognitive emotion regulation, while negative dimensions, such as rejection, chaos, and coercion, were negatively correlated with cognitive emotion regulation. These findings are consistent with the existing literature, emphasizing the critical role of parenting in shaping children's emotional regulation capabilities.

The descriptive statistics indicated that warmth had the highest mean score among the parenting dimensions, suggesting that the participants generally perceived a high level of warmth from their parents. This is significant because warmth is strongly associated with positive emotional outcomes in children (Haslam et al., 2020). The positive correlation between warmth and cognitive emotion regulation in this study supports previous findings that warm and supportive parenting fosters better emotional regulation (Agbaria et al., 2021; Hao et al., 2022).

Conversely, rejection showed a significant negative correlation with cognitive emotion regulation, aligning with research indicating that rejection and lack of emotional support from parents can lead to emotional dysregulation and psychological issues (Kheradmand & Ghahhari, 2018; Loechner et al., 2019). The regression analysis further underscored the detrimental impact of rejection, as it emerged as a significant predictor of poor cognitive emotion regulation.

The dimensions of structure and chaos also demonstrated expected correlations. Structure, characterized by consistency and organization, was positively associated with cognitive emotion regulation. This is consistent with findings from previous studies that highlight the importance of a structured environment in promoting emotional stability (Cueli, 2024). On the other hand, chaos, which represents disorganization and unpredictability, was negatively correlated with cognitive emotion regulation, supporting the notion that chaotic environments can undermine children's ability to manage their emotions effectively (Etemadi et al., 2020).

Autonomy support was another significant positive predictor of cognitive emotion regulation. This dimension involves encouraging independent problem-solving and decision-making, which are crucial for developing effective emotion regulation strategies (Lagacá-Ságuin & Gionet, 2009). The positive association found in this study is in line with research that emphasizes the benefits of autonomy-supportive parenting on emotional and psychological development (Martins et al., 2015; Tang et al., 2022).

Coercion, involving controlling and punitive measures, was negatively associated with cognitive emotion regulation. This aligns with the broader literature that suggests coercive parenting practices can impede emotional development and lead to maladaptive regulation strategies (Loechner et al., 2019; Muna et al., 2022). The negative impact of coercion observed in this study reinforces the importance of non-coercive, supportive parenting practices in fostering healthy emotional regulation.

The findings from this study contribute to the growing body of evidence that underscores the critical role of parenting styles in the development of cognitive emotion regulation in adolescents. By examining multiple dimensions of parenting, this research provides a nuanced understanding of how different parenting practices influence emotional outcomes. The alignment of these results with previous studies across diverse cultural contexts suggests that the impact of parenting on emotion regulation may be universal, though the specific cultural context can modulate these effects (Haslam et al., 2020; Khanum, 2023).

Limitations & Suggestions

Despite the valuable insights provided by this study, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the cross-sectional design of the study limits the ability to draw causal inferences. Longitudinal studies are needed to establish the directionality of the relationships between parenting styles and cognitive emotion regulation. Second, the data were collected through self-reported questionnaires, which may be subject to social desirability bias and inaccuracies in self-perception. Third, the study sample was limited to high school students in Tabriz, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations or cultural contexts. Additionally, the study focused on a specific age group, and future research should consider examining these relationships across different developmental stages to provide a more comprehensive understanding.

Future research should address the limitations of this study by employing longitudinal designs to explore the causal relationships between parenting styles and cognitive emotion regulation. Such studies can provide more robust evidence on how parenting practices influence emotional development over time. Moreover, expanding the sample to include diverse cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds can enhance the generalizability of the findings. Researchers should also consider incorporating multi-informant approaches, such as parent and teacher reports, to mitigate the potential biases associated with self-reported data. Furthermore, examining the moderating and mediating factors, such as temperament and peer relationships, can provide a deeper understanding of the mechanisms through which parenting styles impact cognitive emotion regulation.

The findings of this study have practical implications for parents, educators, and mental health professionals. Parenting interventions should emphasize the importance of warmth, structure, and autonomy support in fostering healthy emotional regulation in children. Parents should be encouraged to create a supportive and predictable environment while promoting independence and problem-solving skills. Conversely, interventions should address the negative impact of rejection, chaos, and coercion, guiding parents towards more positive and constructive parenting practices. Educators and mental health professionals can use these insights to support children in developing effective emotion regulation strategies, thereby enhancing their overall well-being and academic performance.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our appreciation and gratitude to all those who cooperated in carrying out this study.

Declaration of Interest

The authors of this article declared no conflict of interest.

Ethical Considerations

The study protocol adhered to the principles outlined in the Helsinki Declaration, which provides guidelines for ethical research involving human participants.

Transparency of Data

In accordance with the principles of transparency and open research, we declare that all data and materials used in this study are available upon request.

Funding

This research was carried out independently with personal funding and without the financial support of any governmental or private institution or organization.

Authors’ Contributions

All authors equally contributed in this article.